Hebrew Culture and Bible Interpretation
The following is something I wrote up for our Bible study, which is a brief overview of things to consider when reading Hebrew literature (most of the Bible).
Luke wrote from a Greek perspective, which is closer to our western method of communication than those who wrote from a Hebrew cultural perspective. Paul, though Hebrew, wrote his letters to be read by Greeks as well as Jews, and seems to have written in a Greek "manner". However, the rest of the Bible was written by Jews from a Hebrew cultural context. While that is hardly a completely alien perspective, there are some differences that the western reader should be aware of in order to properly interpret most of scripture. Here are some things to be aware of:
1. Numbers. In western formal writing, there is an emphasis on numerical EXACTNESS. If a number is used, for instance "2,996 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks", it means that 2,996 is the exact number. But if the words "about", or "nearly" are used in a sentence, such as "nearly 3,000 people", it means it is rounded from a more exact number. In informal speech, the qualifiers may not be used, but they are understood.
In the Hebrew culture, numeric qualifiers are not used in formal writing even though the numbers may be rounded. Typically numbers over 10 are rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 or 10. Thus, "10,500" means "around 10,500". It MIGHT mean exactly 10,500, but most likely it is rounded. However, if an exact number is used, such as 153, it indicates some significance to the number.
Certain numbers have special significance in Hebrew writing. Of special note are 3 and 7. Both are prime numbers and can only be divided by 1 and themselves. 3 is used 467 times in the Bible and often is used to indicate completeness. Often, rather than the number itself appearing, something is repeated three times. For instance it can used as an "emphatic Semitic triplet" to describe the intensity of something. For example, instead of "holy", the writer might use "holy, holy, holy". Likewise, 7 is used to indicate perfection, fulfillment, completeness, and so forth. It is used even more times in the Bible than 3. This isn't to say that the use of 3 or 7 are inexact - just that they have significance beyond simple numerical references.
The significance of numbers in the Bible should not be confused with Numerology, which is an occultic belief in the mystic connection between specific numbers and events. So just what is the significance of numbers in scripture? One must be careful not to fall into the trap of jumping to conclusions not supported by the text on one hand, or just assuming it has no significance beyond indicating "perfection" (or whatever) on the other hand. Proper interpretation of specific numbers in scripture require normal hermeneutical practices, such as taking things in context with the rest of scripture. This requires study. Don't just take someone else's unsupported interpretation of numbers in a given passage.
2. Poetry. It has been said that 75% of the Bible is Hebrew poetry. That doesn't mean it isn't true or accurate, just that it is presented in a poetical form. The primary way this is expressed is through parallelism. For example, "Lamech said to his wives, 'Adah and Zillah, listen to me; wives of Lamech, hear my words. I have killed a man for wounding me and a young man for injuring me.'" (Genesis 4:23). It is not saying that Lamech killed one man for wounding him and a second man for injuring him. It means that he killed one person and said it two ways. Likewise the creation account occurs twice in Genesis. This does not indicate two creations - it is a single creation stated in two ways. This is an example of Synonymous parallelism, where words, statements, or passages are repeated using different words or phrases.
Another type of parallelism that occurs in the Bible is called a "Chiasm". Chiastic passages state ideas in an inverted parallel fashion. Consider Isaiah 6:10:
"Make the heart of this people fat, and make their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and return, and be healed."
This verse can be represented in an outline form, with each line being an idea (identified below with a letter), like so:
A. Make the heart of this people fat,
B. and make their ears heavy,
C. and shut their eyes;
C. lest they see with their eyes,
B. and hear with their ears,
A. and understand with their heart, and return, and be healed.
In this case, the parallelism is repeated in reverse order. Dr. Kenneth Bailey says that when Jesus uses as chiasm in a parable, the main point of the parable is found just before middle section.
Antithetical parallelism is when there are contrasting statements (usually indicated by "but"), such as Proverbs 10:2:
"Ill-gotten treasures are of no value,
but righteousness delivers from death."
Synthetic parallelism is the fourth type, which is not really parallelism at all. Rather related thoughts are brought together to emphasize similarities, contrasts, or other correlations.
Finally, combinations of these types of parallelism may occur together.
3. Hyperbole. God does not use hyperbole, however Semitic cultures (Hebrew and Arab) often state things hyperbolically. So one must be careful to distinguish who the speaker is when something is said. The general assumption is that if something is not attributed to a specific person, it is understood that it is God is speaking - directly, through an angel, or through a prophet. If the statement is attributed to a specific person, it may be hyperbolic. Otherwise, it should be taken literally (although see the following section). If a man refers to "the whole earth", it may be hyperbolic. If God says "the whole earth", He means literally THE WHOLE EARTH.
Figures of speech (e.g. Synecdoche) are also used and a good commentary will help make these clear when one encounters them.
4. Symbolism. This is especially common in apocalyptic literature, such as Daniel and Revelation, but can occur other places. So how do we know whether to interpret something literally or figuratively? Fortunately, scripture is usually pretty clear on this. One way to know is that after the symbolic representation, the scripture indicates what the symbol(s) represents. For instance, in Daniel 7, the angel explains to Daniel, "These great beasts, which are four in number, are four kings who will arise from the earth." This indicates that the beasts were, in fact, symbolic of some kings.
Another way to determine likely symbolism is when the words "something that looked like" are used. For instance, Revelation 4:6: "Also in front of the throne there was what looked like a sea of glass, clear as crystal." (The ESV states it "and before the throne there was, as it were a sea of glass, like crystal." The use of "as it were" is key.) It is almost certainly symbolic rather than literal. Of course, it could also be the prophet recording a literal phenomenon that he was unfamiliar with, such as is possible with Revelation 8:8: "The second angel sounded his trumpet, and something like a huge mountain, all ablaze, was thrown into the sea." Sounds like an asteroid hitting the earth to me, which is something John could only describe as he did. But it could be symbolic instead. Or, it could be both literal AND symbolic. The point is, in the absence of qualifiers, scripture is to be taken literally, rather than symbolically. But, again, take everything in context. And remember that literal things can also have a symbolic meaning (such as the sacrifices in the Mosaic law, which were symbols of Jesus and His atoning death).
However, it should also be noted that not everything in apocalyptic literature is symbolic. One must be discerning. For instance, unrounded numbers in Revelation: given the Jewish year of 360 days, the use of 3 1/2 years, 42 months, and 1,260 days are all precisely equal.
Pastor Bud uses the following criteria to determine whether a passage is literal or symbolic: If one or more of the following conditions is present, the verse is figurative rather than literal:
a. When it involves an impossibility or absurdity (see Revelation 1:16)
b. When it involves a contradiction or inconsistency (see Genesis 6:6 and Heb 6:18)
c. When it involves an immoral conclusion
d. When context implies otherwise
e. When it is clearly stated as figurative (see above)
f. When it is logical to be figurative (see 2 Chronicles 16:9)
5. Sequencing. Things in scripture are sometimes not in chronological order. If the words "and then" (or some other clear statement) are used, it indicates ordering or antecedence. But prophets often wrote down multiple prophecies over their lifetimes. A given prophecy may be chronologically unrelated to the other prophecies (other when they were given). The effect is that as you read through Isaiah, for instance, you are jumping around in time as far as when the prophecies came true. In other words, the ordering in the text may not match the ordering of when the prophesied events were fulfilled in history.
6. Names. In our modern western culture, personal names are largely labels. They may hold some family or ethnic significance, but most people don't associate meanings to the names - unless the names are related to some historical personage. But the Hebrew culture was different. Personal names were often words or phrases in Hebrew. For instance, Yeshua (modern "Joshua" or "Jesus") means "God saves". Thus, names said something about the person. This is why both Peter and Saul had their names changed (Cephas and Paul) - to recognize a new character, attribute, or mission. Some prophets (such as Isaiah) were told to name their children with a name that had a specific meaning. And when God proclaimed His name to Moses, He didn't just say "I'm Yahweh". Rather, He described his character to Moses. That is, His name was bound up with Who He is. Yahweh means "I am". Thus, even the one-word name speaks about the reality of Who He is. So, names often carry a significant meaning in the Bible which may affect understanding. Incidentally, we have vestiges of this idea still in our culture when we talk about bringing "shame on the family name" - it means sullying the reputation of the surname and, by extension, those who have that name.